Marshall County is a rural county in northeastern South Dakota, located along the North Dakota border and extending eastward toward the Minnesota line. Established in the late 19th century during the region’s Euro-American settlement and railroad-era development, it forms part of the Prairie Coteau and adjacent glacial plains that shape the county’s gently rolling farmland and numerous wetlands. The county is small in population by state standards, with fewer than 5,000 residents, and its communities are dispersed across an agricultural landscape. Marshall County’s economy is centered on farming and related services, with small towns providing local education, retail, and civic functions. Outdoor recreation and waterfowl habitat are associated with the county’s lakes and prairie pothole terrain, reflecting a broader northeastern South Dakota landscape. The county seat is Britton, which serves as the primary administrative and commercial center.

Marshall County Local Demographic Profile

Marshall County is located in northeastern South Dakota along the North Dakota border, with Britton as the county seat. The county lies within the Prairie Coteau region and includes portions of the Lake Traverse area.

Population Size

According to the U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts for Marshall County, South Dakota, the county’s population was 4,306 (2020 decennial census).

Age & Gender

The U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts profile for Marshall County provides county-level age and sex measures from the American Community Survey (ACS), including:

  • Age distribution (share under 18, 18–64, and 65+)
  • Median age
  • Gender composition (percent female / percent male)

Racial & Ethnic Composition

The U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts profile for Marshall County reports race and Hispanic/Latino origin measures (ACS), including:

  • Shares identifying as White, American Indian and Alaska Native, Black or African American, Asian, two or more races, and other categories used by the Census Bureau
  • Hispanic or Latino (of any race)

Household & Housing Data

The U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts profile for Marshall County provides household and housing indicators (ACS), including:

  • Number of households
  • Average household size
  • Owner-occupied housing rate
  • Total housing units
  • Median value of owner-occupied housing units and related housing characteristics included in the QuickFacts table

For local government and planning resources, visit the Marshall County, South Dakota official website.

Email Usage

Marshall County, South Dakota is sparsely populated and largely rural, so longer distances between homes and service nodes shape internet availability and reliability; this generally affects everyday digital communication such as email.

Direct county-level email usage statistics are not routinely published, so email adoption is best inferred from proxy indicators such as broadband subscription, device access, and age structure. The U.S. Census Bureau (ACS) tables on internet and computer access provide county estimates for household broadband subscriptions and computer ownership, which are closely tied to practical email access (account creation, authentication, and sustained use). Age distribution from ACS demographic profiles is also relevant because older age shares are typically associated with lower uptake of newer digital services and higher reliance on assisted access.

Gender composition is available in ACS profiles, but it is generally a weaker predictor of email use than broadband/device access and age.

Connectivity constraints in rural counties are commonly reflected in fixed-network coverage gaps and limited provider choice documented in the FCC National Broadband Map, which helps contextualize infrastructure limitations that can suppress consistent email use.

Mobile Phone Usage

Marshall County is in northeastern South Dakota along the North Dakota border, with Britton as the county seat. The county is predominantly rural and part of the Prairie Coteau/Glaciated Plains region, with low population density and widely spaced towns, farms, and lake areas. These characteristics typically increase the cost per mile of wireless infrastructure, and they can create coverage variability along highways, near lakes, and in sparsely populated areas. County-level mobile adoption and device-type statistics are limited; most authoritative measures are published at the state, tract, or provider-coverage level rather than by county.

Key distinction: network availability vs. household adoption

Network availability refers to where mobile providers report service (coverage footprints and technology such as LTE or 5G). In the United States, the primary public source is the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) provider-reported mobile broadband coverage data.
Household adoption refers to whether residents subscribe to mobile service or use smartphones/mobile broadband, which is generally measured by surveys such as the American Community Survey (ACS). The ACS does not publish a county-level “mobile subscription” measure that directly maps to smartphone ownership or mobile plan penetration.

Mobile penetration or access indicators (where available)

  • County-level adoption indicators (limited): The most consistently available county-level indicator related to connectivity is household internet subscription status (for internet access broadly), available through the U.S. Census Bureau’s ACS tables and tools. This reflects whether households report internet subscriptions (which may include cellular data plans), but it does not isolate mobile-only usage without careful table selection and may be subject to sampling variability in small rural counties. County-level estimates can be retrieved via the U.S. Census Bureau data tools and ACS subject tables on internet subscription and computer type.
    Source: U.S. Census Bureau data portal (data.census.gov)
  • Mobile-only households (not reliably county-specific in all cases): The ACS includes measures that can capture households with cellular data plans and no wired subscription in some products, but county-level precision varies. For small populations, margins of error can be large, and certain breakdowns may not be published at county scale.
    Source: American Community Survey (ACS) overview at Census.gov

Limitation: Public, definitive “mobile penetration” (e.g., percent of people with a mobile phone or smartphone) is typically available at national/state levels from surveys such as the National Health Interview Survey or Pew Research, but not as a standard, authoritative county-level statistic for Marshall County.

Mobile internet usage patterns (4G, 5G availability)

Network availability (coverage)

  • 4G LTE: In rural South Dakota counties, LTE is the baseline mobile broadband technology reported by major and regional carriers. The presence of LTE on coverage maps indicates reported outdoor/vehicle coverage, not guaranteed indoor service.
    Authoritative, map-based availability is available through FCC mobile broadband coverage layers and the National Broadband Map.
    Sources:
  • 5G (availability varies by provider and location): 5G availability in rural counties is often concentrated near towns and along major road corridors, with more limited geographic reach than LTE. FCC availability layers distinguish between technology types reported by providers; however, these remain provider-reported and may not reflect real-world performance.
    Source: FCC National Broadband Map (technology filters)

Actual usage (adoption/behavior)

  • County-specific mobile internet usage patterns are not directly published in a standardized way (e.g., share of residents using mobile broadband daily, 4G vs 5G device usage) for Marshall County. Usage patterns are typically inferred from broader survey work at state or national levels or from proprietary analytics.

Common device types (smartphones vs. other devices)

  • County-level device-type statistics are limited. The ACS provides measures on computer type (desktop/laptop/tablet) and internet subscription type at various geographies, but it does not provide a direct county-level “smartphone ownership” measure comparable to national smartphone adoption statistics.
  • Proxy indicators:
    • Households reporting cellular data plan subscriptions can serve as an indicator of mobile broadband reliance, but it does not specify smartphone vs. hotspot vs. tablet-only usage.
    • Computer-type tables can indicate reliance on tablets or absence of traditional computers, but they do not enumerate smartphones as a “computer type.”
      Source: ACS internet and computer tables via data.census.gov

Limitation: Definitive smartphone share vs. feature phone share for Marshall County is generally not available from public federal datasets at county scale.

Demographic and geographic factors influencing mobile usage and connectivity

  • Rural settlement pattern and low density: Fewer users per square mile can reduce the economic incentive for dense tower placement, which can affect signal strength and capacity outside incorporated areas. This is a geographic/engineering constraint rather than an adoption measure.
  • Distance to towers and backhaul: Rural coverage quality depends on tower spacing and transport (fiber or microwave backhaul). Areas farther from towns and major routes may have weaker indoor coverage even when outdoor coverage is reported.
  • Terrain and land cover: Northeastern South Dakota’s rolling glacial terrain and lake regions can introduce localized shadowing and variability compared with flat open prairie, though impacts are highly site-specific and not uniformly mapped at county scale.
  • Income, age, and housing dispersion (adoption side): ACS can provide county-level distributions for age, income, and household characteristics that are commonly associated in the research literature with differences in internet subscription and mobile-only reliance. These variables are measurable for Marshall County, but translating them into mobile-phone adoption rates requires caution because the ACS does not directly measure smartphone ownership.
    Source: ACS demographic profiles and detailed tables at data.census.gov

Public sources for Marshall County-specific checks

  • FCC reported coverage (availability): The most direct public way to examine LTE/5G availability in and around Marshall County is through the FCC map with provider/technology filters.
    Source: FCC National Broadband Map
  • State broadband planning context: State broadband offices often summarize statewide coverage, unserved/underserved definitions, and challenge processes tied to federal programs. These materials provide context but are not substitutes for county-level mobile adoption measurement.
    Source: South Dakota Broadband Program (state broadband office)
  • County context (geography and settlement): Local administrative sources help contextualize where population centers and services are located, which relates to where networks are typically densest.
    Source: Marshall County, South Dakota official website

Summary of what can and cannot be stated definitively for Marshall County

  • Definitively available: Provider-reported LTE/5G availability by location through FCC datasets and maps; general rural-geography constraints on coverage; county-level ACS demographics and general internet-subscription indicators (not smartphone-specific).
  • Not definitively available at county level from standard public sources: Mobile phone penetration rates, smartphone vs. non-smartphone shares, and verified 4G vs. 5G usage behavior among residents. Where ACS subscription-type measures are used as proxies, results require careful interpretation and margins-of-error review rather than being treated as precise mobile adoption rates.

Social Media Trends

Marshall County is in northeastern South Dakota along the North Dakota border, with Britton as the county seat and Lake City as another local center. The county’s rural settlement pattern, agriculture-led economy, long travel distances for in-person services, and a sizable American Indian population in the region are factors commonly associated with heavier reliance on mobile internet and “all‑in‑one” social platforms for news, community updates, and marketplace activity.

User statistics (penetration / share active)

  • No Marshall County–specific social media penetration estimate is publicly reported in major U.S. surveys. County-level measurement is typically not released due to sample-size and privacy constraints.
  • Benchmarks used for rural counties in South Dakota generally come from national surveys:

Age group trends (who uses social media most)

National patterns from the Pew Research Center social media fact sheet consistently show:

  • 18–29: highest overall use across most platforms.
  • 30–49: high use, typically slightly below 18–29.
  • 50–64: moderate use; Facebook remains comparatively strong.
  • 65+: lowest overall use but continued growth over time; Facebook remains the most common platform in this group.

In rural counties such as Marshall, age differences tend to be reflected in platform choice: younger adults skew toward short‑form video and visual platforms, while older adults concentrate on Facebook for local news, groups, and family connections.

Gender breakdown

County-specific gender splits are not published in standard public datasets, but national usage differences are well documented:

  • Women in the U.S. are more likely than men to report using Pinterest and are often slightly more likely to use Facebook and Instagram in Pew reporting, while
  • Men are more likely to report using platforms such as Reddit and show higher usage in some discussion/community forums. Source: Pew Research Center social media fact sheet.

Most-used platforms (percentages where available)

Marshall County platform rankings are not published as official statistics; the most defensible approach is to cite national platform prevalence and apply rural-community context for likely local dominance:

  • Facebook: used by ~68% of U.S. adults (Pew).
  • YouTube: used by ~83% of U.S. adults (Pew).
  • Instagram: used by ~47% of U.S. adults (Pew).
  • Pinterest: used by ~35% of U.S. adults (Pew).
  • TikTok: used by ~33% of U.S. adults (Pew).
  • LinkedIn: used by ~30% of U.S. adults (Pew).
  • X (formerly Twitter): used by ~22% of U.S. adults (Pew).
  • Snapchat: used by ~27% of U.S. adults (Pew). Source for all platform shares: Pew Research Center social media fact sheet.

Likely Marshall County ordering (qualitative):

  • Facebook tends to be the primary “community platform” in rural Great Plains counties due to local groups, events, school activities, and informal public-safety/community notices.
  • YouTube has broad reach across ages and is commonly used for entertainment, how‑to content, farming/auto repair information, and local/regional news clips.
  • TikTok/Instagram/Snapchat concentrate more heavily among younger residents, with TikTok especially strong for short-form entertainment and discovery.

Behavioral trends (engagement patterns / preferences)

  • Community information via Facebook Groups and pages: Rural counties often use Facebook for hyperlocal coordination (school activities, sports, church events, weather impacts, fundraisers, and buy/sell/trade). This aligns with Facebook’s comparatively older age profile and strong “group” utility noted in broader research summarized by Pew (source).
  • Video-first consumption: High YouTube penetration nationally (Pew) supports heavy use for both entertainment and practical learning content, which maps well to rural households and agricultural communities.
  • Short-form video adoption among younger adults: TikTok usage is substantially higher among younger adults than older adults in Pew reporting (source), and engagement patterns emphasize frequent, session-based scrolling rather than occasional check-ins.
  • Local commerce and informal marketplaces: Rural areas commonly rely on social platforms (especially Facebook) for secondhand goods, services, and local recommendations, reflecting fewer brick-and-mortar options and longer travel distances.
  • News and civic information exposure through social feeds: Pew finds sizable shares of adults regularly get news via social media, with platform mix varying by age and ideology; see Pew’s broader news and social media research hub at Pew Research Center Journalism & Media.

Family & Associates Records

Marshall County, South Dakota maintains family and associate-related public records primarily through state and county offices. Birth and death records are South Dakota vital records and are administered by the South Dakota Department of Health, Vital Records; certified copies are restricted to eligible requesters under state law and are not fully public records. Marriage records are recorded locally by the Marshall County Register of Deeds and may be available for in-person search and for copies through the office. Divorce records are handled through the Marshall County court system as part of circuit court case files; public access varies by record type and any sealing orders.

Public databases relevant to associates and family history include property ownership and transfers (deeds, mortgages) and other recorded instruments maintained by the Register of Deeds, and court case indexing through South Dakota’s unified court system. Marshall County property and tax information is commonly accessible via the county’s equalization/treasurer functions, with search tools and office contact information provided on the county website.

Access is provided both in person at the responsible office (Register of Deeds, Treasurer/Equalization, Clerk of Courts) and online through official portals and statewide systems. Privacy restrictions commonly apply to vital records (birth, death), adoption records (generally sealed), certain juvenile matters, and any court records sealed or redacted by rule.

Links: Marshall County, SD (official website); SD Department of Health – Vital Records; South Dakota Unified Judicial System.

Marriage & Divorce Records

Types of records available

Marriage records

  • Marriage license/application: Issued before a marriage by the county authority responsible for recording marriages.
  • Marriage certificate/return: The completed license (often called the “return”) filed after the ceremony to document that the marriage occurred.
  • Marriage register/index entries: County-level listings that summarize marriages recorded in the county.

Divorce records

  • Divorce case file: Court file that may include the summons/complaint, affidavits, stipulations/settlement, findings of fact and conclusions of law, and related motions/orders.
  • Judgment and Decree of Divorce (divorce decree): The final court order dissolving the marriage and addressing terms such as property division, custody, parenting time, child support, and spousal support when applicable.

Annulment records

  • Annulment case file and decree: Court records for actions declaring a marriage void or voidable under South Dakota law, maintained similarly to other civil family cases.

Where records are filed and how they can be accessed

Marshall County (local offices)

  • Marriage records (recording/issuance and local copies): Maintained at the Marshall County Register of Deeds (marriage licenses and recorded marriage documents are county-recorded vital events).
    • Access typically occurs by requesting a certified copy or search through the Register of Deeds office during business hours, subject to identification and eligibility rules applied to vital records.
  • Divorce and annulment records (court filings and decrees): Filed with the Marshall County Clerk of Courts (South Dakota Circuit Court) as civil family court matters.
    • Access occurs through the Clerk of Courts for copies of the judgment/decree and other documents, subject to court record access rules and any sealing/redaction requirements.

State-level vital records

  • South Dakota Department of Health – Office of Vital Records maintains statewide vital records (including marriage and divorce data as reported to the state) and issues certified copies according to state eligibility rules. County offices and the courts are the primary filing locations; the state office serves as the central repository for certified vital records and statistical reporting.

Typical information included in these records

Marriage license/certificate

  • Full legal names of the parties
  • Date and place of marriage (or intended place, plus actual return details)
  • Ages/birthdates and places of birth (commonly included on applications)
  • Residence addresses at the time of application (commonly included)
  • Names of officiant and date the marriage was solemnized (on the return/certificate)
  • Signatures of the parties, witnesses (where required), and officiant (varies by form/version)
  • License number, date issued, and recording details

Divorce decree (Judgment and Decree of Divorce)

  • Names of the parties and case number
  • Date of decree and court/county of entry
  • Legal findings dissolving the marriage
  • Orders on property and debt allocation
  • Child-related orders (legal/physical custody, parenting time, child support) when applicable
  • Spousal support/alimony orders when applicable
  • Restoration of a former name when granted
  • Any referenced agreements/stipulations incorporated into the decree

Annulment decree

  • Names of the parties and case number
  • Date of decree and court/county of entry
  • Legal determination that the marriage is void or voidable and the resulting status
  • Orders addressing related issues (property, support, children) when applicable

Privacy or legal restrictions

  • Marriage records are generally treated as vital records. South Dakota restricts issuance of certified copies to eligible requesters under state vital records rules, and requests typically require identification and payment of statutory fees. Non-certified access may be limited at the county level based on record format and office policy, but certified copy issuance follows state eligibility standards.
  • Divorce and annulment records are court records. Many documents and the final decree are generally public court records, but access can be limited by:
    • Sealed case files or sealed documents by court order
    • Confidential information protections, including redaction requirements for identifiers (such as Social Security numbers) and restricted access to certain sensitive filings
    • Protected information involving minors, abuse/neglect, or other categories made confidential by law or order
  • Certified copies of certain court dispositions may be available through the Clerk of Courts; certified vital record certificates are issued through the Register of Deeds and/or the South Dakota Office of Vital Records, depending on the record type and requester eligibility.

Education, Employment and Housing

Marshall County is in northeastern South Dakota along the North Dakota border, with Britton as the county seat and Lake City as another principal community. It is predominantly rural, with a small-town service economy supported by surrounding agricultural production and regional travel to larger employment centers in adjacent counties and North Dakota.

Education Indicators

Public schools (counts and names)

Marshall County’s public K–12 education is primarily provided by two school districts:

  • Britton-Hecla School District 45-4 (Britton area)
  • Langford School District 45-5 (Langford area)

School-level names and grade configurations vary by district and can change over time; the most authoritative current listings are maintained by the South Dakota Department of Education district and school directory (South Dakota DOE Education Directory).

Student–teacher ratios and graduation rates

  • Student–teacher ratios: District-level ratios in rural northeastern South Dakota are typically in the low-to-mid teens students per teacher, reflecting smaller enrollments and class sizes. For Marshall County’s two districts, the most current ratios are reported through the South Dakota DOE report cards (South Dakota School Report Cards) and the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) district profiles (NCES District Search).
  • Graduation rates: County-specific graduation rates are not generally published as a county metric; South Dakota reports district and school graduation outcomes. The most recent cohort graduation rates for Britton-Hecla and Langford are available in the same DOE report card system (South Dakota School Report Cards).

Proxy note: In the absence of a single “county graduation rate,” district cohort graduation rates serve as the standard proxy because districts are the reporting unit for accountability in South Dakota.

Adult educational attainment

Adult educational attainment is most consistently measured through the U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey (ACS). County-level estimates for Marshall County are available via:

Key indicators commonly reported for counties include:

  • High school graduate or higher (age 25+)
  • Bachelor’s degree or higher (age 25+)

Availability note: The ACS provides modeled estimates with margins of error that can be sizable for small populations such as Marshall County.

Notable programs (STEM, CTE, AP/dual credit)

Marshall County’s districts participate in statewide program structures rather than county-specific systems. Notable program types documented for South Dakota districts include:

  • Career and Technical Education (CTE) pathways (agriculture, skilled trades, business, family and consumer sciences, and related areas) supported under statewide CTE frameworks (South Dakota DOE Career & Technical Education).
  • Dual credit / postsecondary credit opportunities commonly provided through partnerships with South Dakota postsecondary institutions; offerings vary by district and year (district course catalogs and DOE reporting are the typical sources).
  • Advanced Placement (AP): AP availability is district-dependent and is most reliably confirmed through district course guides and DOE school profiles.

Proxy note: In rural districts, CTE and dual credit are generally more prevalent than broad AP course catalogs, but the definitive record is district course offerings for the current year.

School safety measures and counseling resources

South Dakota districts generally align to statewide expectations for:

  • Emergency operations planning, visitor procedures, and coordination with local law enforcement.
  • Student support services, including school counseling and referral pathways, which are typically described in district handbooks and reported in staffing categories.

State-level references used by districts include school safety and student support guidance hosted by the South Dakota DOE (South Dakota Department of Education). District handbooks and board policies remain the authoritative sources for specific building-level measures (secured entry, drills, threat assessment procedures) and counseling staffing.


Employment and Economic Conditions

Unemployment rate (most recent)

The most recent official local unemployment estimates for South Dakota counties are published through the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Local Area Unemployment Statistics (LAUS) program. Marshall County’s current annual and monthly unemployment rates are available here:

Availability note: A single “most recent year” value depends on the latest annual average release; LAUS is updated monthly with annual averages published on a set schedule.

Major industries and employment sectors

Marshall County’s employment base is typical of rural northeastern South Dakota, with concentrations in:

  • Agriculture and related services (including crop and livestock operations and agribusiness support)
  • Educational services (public schools)
  • Health care and social assistance (clinics, long-term care, and human services)
  • Retail trade and local services
  • Public administration
  • Construction and transportation tied to regional building activity and freight movement

Industry composition is best quantified using ACS “industry by occupation” and employment-by-industry tables for Marshall County:

Common occupations and workforce breakdown

Common occupational groups in similar rural counties include:

  • Management/business/financial (small business management, farm operators, public administration)
  • Education and health services occupations
  • Sales and office occupations
  • Production, transportation, and material moving
  • Construction and maintenance
  • Farming, fishing, and forestry (often a larger share than urban counties)

ACS occupation tables provide county estimates for these groups:

Commuting patterns and mean commute time

Commuting in Marshall County generally reflects:

  • High rates of driving alone due to rural settlement patterns and limited transit
  • Work trips to nearby towns and regional job centers, including out-of-county destinations

For quantitative measures (mode to work, mean travel time, and out-of-county commuting), the ACS “commuting (journey to work)” tables are the standard source:

Proxy note: Mean commute times in rural South Dakota counties commonly fall in the ~15–25 minute range, but Marshall County’s definitive mean commute time should be taken from the ACS table for the most recent 5-year release.

Local employment vs. out-of-county work

County-to-county commuting flows (the share of residents working inside Marshall County versus commuting to other counties/states) are best captured through:

  • ACS commuting characteristics and
  • U.S. Census Bureau LEHD/OnTheMap origin-destination data (where available for the geography)

In rural border counties, out-of-county commuting is typically meaningful due to limited local job density and proximity to larger employment nodes.


Housing and Real Estate

Homeownership rate and rental share

Homeownership and rental shares for Marshall County are reported through ACS housing tenure tables:

Proxy note: Rural South Dakota counties generally show high homeownership and a smaller rental market than urban areas; the precise county shares should be taken from the latest ACS 5-year estimates.

Median property values and recent trends

  • Median home value (owner-occupied housing unit value) is available via ACS.
  • For transaction-based trends (sales prices), county-level coverage can be limited due to low sales volume; ACS value trends are often used as the consistent proxy for small counties.

Primary source:

Regional pattern context (proxy): rural northeastern South Dakota has generally experienced moderate appreciation since 2020, but with variability by community and limited inventory affecting observed sale prices.

Typical rent prices

Typical rent is most consistently measured using median gross rent in the ACS:

Proxy note: In small rural counties, median gross rent can be influenced by a small number of rentals and may show larger year-to-year statistical noise.

Types of housing

Marshall County’s housing stock is predominantly:

  • Single-family detached homes in Britton, Langford, Lake City, and smaller settlements
  • Farmhouses and rural residential properties on larger lots in the unincorporated area
  • Limited multifamily/apartment units, typically small buildings or duplex-style rentals in town

ACS “units in structure” and “year structure built” tables quantify this mix:

Neighborhood characteristics (proximity to schools/amenities)

Housing in Britton and Langford tends to have:

  • Closer proximity to schools, municipal services, and retail
  • More grid-street neighborhoods with walkable access to local civic amenities (school campus, city offices, parks)

Rural housing outside incorporated places generally features:

  • Longer travel distances to schools and services
  • Greater reliance on personal vehicles for daily needs

Availability note: Countywide, neighborhood-level walkability and amenity proximity are not commonly published as official county metrics; community context is typically derived from municipal land use patterns and town geography.

Property tax overview (rate and typical homeowner cost)

South Dakota property tax is administered locally with valuations and levies varying by taxing district. County-level summaries and levy information are available through:

A common way to summarize homeowner burden is:

  • Effective property tax rate (tax paid as a share of market value) and/or
  • Median real estate taxes paid (ACS)

ACS provides “median real estate taxes paid” for owner-occupied housing units:

Proxy note: South Dakota’s property tax burden varies widely by school district levies and local government needs; countywide “average rate” is best represented using effective rate estimates derived from aggregate taxes and valuations, or median taxes paid from ACS where sample sizes permit.