Covington is an independent city in the western part of Virginia, located in the Alleghany Highlands along the Jackson River near the West Virginia border. Although sometimes referenced alongside surrounding Alleghany County for regional services and identity, Covington is not a county and is administratively separate under Virginia’s independent-city system; it nevertheless serves as the county seat of Alleghany County. The city developed in the 19th century as a rail and river valley community and later became associated with timber and manufacturing. Covington is small in scale, with a population of roughly 5,000 residents. The local landscape is characterized by mountainous terrain, forested slopes, and river corridors typical of the Ridge-and-Valley and Appalachian transition zone. Land use and community life reflect a largely rural highlands setting, with an economy historically tied to industry and natural resources and a regional culture connected to outdoor recreation and small-city institutions.

Covington City County Local Demographic Profile

Covington is an independent city in the western part of the Commonwealth of Virginia, located in the Alleghany Highlands region along the Jackson River. In U.S. Census Bureau geography, Covington is a city-level jurisdiction rather than a county (often listed separately from surrounding Alleghany County).

Population Size

According to the U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts for Covington city, Virginia, Covington had an estimated population of 5,470 (2023).

Age & Gender

The U.S. Census Bureau data portal (data.census.gov) provides age distribution and sex composition tables for Covington city, Virginia. A single consolidated age-and-gender profile is not available in this response because exact table selections (e.g., ACS 5-year table IDs and year) must be specified to report definitive percentages without approximation.

Racial & Ethnic Composition

The U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts for Covington city, Virginia reports race and Hispanic/Latino origin shares for Covington using standardized Census categories. Exact percentages vary by dataset/year selection shown on the QuickFacts page and are not reproduced here without specifying the precise reference year and measure displayed.

Household and Housing Data

Household and housing indicators for Covington (including measures such as households, owner-occupied housing rate, median value, and housing units) are published on the U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts for Covington city, Virginia page and in detailed tables via data.census.gov. Exact values are not listed here because definitive reporting requires naming the specific Census/ACS table(s) and vintage used.

Local Government Reference

For local government and planning resources, visit the official City of Covington website.

Email Usage

Covington is an independent city in western Virginia with small-population, mountainous surroundings that can raise last‑mile buildout costs and affect the reliability and reach of digital communication infrastructure.

Direct email-usage statistics are not published at the local level, so broadband and device access serve as proxies for likely email adoption. The most consistently cited local indicators come from the U.S. Census Bureau (ACS) tables on Internet subscriptions and computing devices, which report household broadband subscription rates and computer ownership for places such as Covington. In general, higher broadband subscription and computer access correlate with more routine email use for work, school, and government services.

Age structure can influence adoption because older populations tend to have lower rates of broadband take-up and online account use; Covington’s age distribution can be referenced in ACS demographic profiles to contextualize likely email engagement.

Gender distribution is typically near parity in ACS profiles and is less predictive of email adoption than age and connectivity.

Connectivity constraints are shaped by regional topography and provider coverage, as documented in the FCC National Broadband Map, which details service availability and technology types.

Mobile Phone Usage

Covington is an independent city in western Virginia (Alleghany Highlands region) and is closely integrated with surrounding Alleghany County for commuting, services, and infrastructure. The area sits in the Appalachian Valley-and-Ridge terrain, with steep slopes, forest cover, and narrow valleys that can reduce line-of-sight for tower-based wireless service and make coverage more uneven than in flatter, denser parts of Virginia. Population density is relatively low compared with Virginia’s major metros, which tends to reduce the number of cell sites per square mile and can increase the likelihood of coverage gaps and capacity constraints.

Key definitions used in this overview

  • Network availability (supply): Whether a mobile network (4G LTE, 5G) is reported as covering an area at a given performance threshold.
  • Household adoption (demand): Whether households actually subscribe to mobile or fixed internet service, and which devices they use to access the internet.

Mobile network availability (4G/5G) in and around Covington

Reported mobile coverage

County- or city-specific, carrier-by-carrier mobile coverage is primarily documented through the Federal Communications Commission’s mobile availability datasets and maps. The FCC’s Broadband Data Collection (BDC) includes mobile broadband availability filings from providers and is the central public reference for reported 4G/5G coverage surfaces.

  • Source and map access: FCC National Broadband Map (use the location search for “Covington, VA” and the mobile layers to view LTE/5G).

Limitations: FCC mobile availability is provider-reported and model-based; it is designed to show where service is claimed to be available, not to measure real-world signal strength at street level. Terrain and vegetation common in the Alleghany Highlands can cause localized variation that availability maps may not capture well.

4G LTE and 5G availability patterns

  • 4G LTE: In most Virginia localities, LTE is the baseline mobile broadband layer and tends to be more geographically extensive than 5G. In mountainous terrain, LTE coverage can remain present but with variable indoor reception and variable performance in valleys or behind ridgelines.
  • 5G: 5G availability typically concentrates along travel corridors and populated areas first, expanding outward as providers add spectrum bands and sites. In rural/mountain regions, 5G presence can be more limited and may rely on lower-band spectrum (wider area coverage but not necessarily high peak speeds).

For statewide context on coverage and deployment priorities (including rural areas), Virginia’s broadband office publishes planning material and mapping resources that complement FCC data: Virginia Department of Housing and Community Development (DHCD) – Broadband.

Household adoption and mobile access indicators (Covington-specific data availability)

Internet subscription and “mobile-only” dependence

The most consistent public source for household adoption indicators is the U.S. Census Bureau’s American Community Survey (ACS), which includes measures such as:

  • Household internet subscription status
  • Broadband type used (including cellular data plan vs. wired service)
  • Device types available in the household

These indicators are available for many geographies, but small-population areas can have larger margins of error and, in some cases, suppressed estimates. For Covington (independent city), ACS tables may be available but should be interpreted with attention to margins of error.

  • Primary reference: Census.gov data tables (ACS) (search for Covington city, Virginia; relevant tables commonly include internet subscription and computer/device access).

Clear distinction:

  • Availability (FCC) describes where mobile service is claimed to exist.
  • Adoption (ACS) describes whether households subscribe and which access modes they actually use (cellular plan, cable/fiber/DSL, etc.).

Mobile internet usage patterns (actual use vs. coverage)

Direct county/city-level statistics on how residents use mobile networks (share of traffic on mobile vs. fixed, time-on-network, app use) are not generally published in official datasets. Publicly accessible proxies include:

  • Household cellular-data-plan subscription and households that rely on cellular data as their internet service (ACS).
  • Fixed broadband availability and adoption (FCC and ACS), which influences whether mobile service is used primarily as a supplement or as the primary connection.

In rural Appalachian areas, mobile broadband is more likely to function as:

  • A supplement to limited fixed options where wired networks are sparse, or
  • A primary connection for some households where fixed service is unavailable, unaffordable, or unreliable.

Limitation: Without a local survey or carrier analytics, the share of residents using 4G vs. 5G day-to-day in Covington cannot be stated definitively from public administrative data.

Common device types (smartphones vs. other devices)

The ACS provides household-level indicators on:

Interpretation note: Device presence does not equal primary usage, but in areas where cellular plans substitute for wired internet, smartphone-only or smartphone-first access tends to be more common than in high–fixed-broadband-adoption metros.

Demographic and geographic factors influencing mobile usage and connectivity

Terrain and land cover (connectivity constraints)

  • Mountain ridges and valleys can obstruct radio propagation, producing coverage variability over short distances.
  • Forest cover can weaken signal strength, particularly for higher-frequency bands, affecting indoor and in-vehicle performance. These factors can create a sharper difference between mapped availability and experienced service quality than in flatter regions.

Population density and site economics

Lower density generally means:

  • Fewer towers/small cells per square mile
  • Greater distances between sites
  • More reliance on macrotowers and lower-frequency spectrum for broader coverage

This affects both availability (where providers build) and performance (capacity per user), especially during peak times.

Socioeconomic and age structure (adoption and device mix)

Public demographic correlates of mobile-only internet reliance include income, age distribution, and housing characteristics. These relationships can be analyzed using:

Limitation: Without a Covington-specific synthesis study, these factors can be identified as standard correlates but not quantified for Covington beyond what ACS tables directly report.

Local and regional planning context

Regional broadband planning documents sometimes incorporate local stakeholder input on coverage gaps and adoption barriers, complementing federal datasets:

Data limitations specific to “Covington City County”

  • Geography: Covington is an independent city, not a county. Many datasets still support city-level reporting, but some third-party tools and summaries emphasize counties, requiring careful selection of “Covington city, Virginia.”
  • Small-area uncertainty: Survey-based adoption estimates (ACS) can carry substantial margins of error for small populations, reducing precision for smartphone-only or cellular-plan-only measures.
  • Availability vs. performance: FCC mobile availability data indicates where service is reported as available; it does not measure real-world throughput, latency, or indoor coverage consistency in mountainous terrain.

Social Media Trends

Covington is an independent city in western Virginia’s Alleghany Highlands region (administratively separate from surrounding Alleghany County). It is part of the Roanoke media market and has a small-city, Appalachian setting with an economy historically tied to manufacturing and forest products and a regional culture oriented around local institutions and community events, factors that generally align with heavier reliance on Facebook-style community networks versus trend-driven platforms.

Local user statistics (Covington-specific availability and best-available proxies)

  • No authoritative, city-level social media penetration estimates are published for Covington in standard federal datasets. Most reliable measurements are national or statewide, and platform companies’ local ad-audience tools are not consistent enough for an encyclopedic estimate.
  • Best-available benchmark (U.S. adult use): About 69% of U.S. adults report using at least one social media site, according to the Pew Research Center social media fact sheet. Covington’s true penetration is most defensibly described as broadly tracking U.S. patterns, with differences mainly driven by age structure and broadband access.

Age-group trends (most to least intensive)

Based on nationally measured patterns that are commonly used as a proxy for small localities:

  • 18–29: Highest overall usage and the broadest multi-platform adoption (Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok, YouTube, X).
  • 30–49: High usage, typically strong on Facebook, YouTube, and Instagram.
  • 50–64: Moderate-to-high usage, strongest on Facebook and YouTube.
  • 65+: Lowest usage but still substantial for Facebook and YouTube. These gradients are documented in Pew’s age-by-platform breakdowns in the Pew Research Center platform detail tables.

Gender breakdown (overall and by platform tendencies)

  • Overall social media use by gender is relatively close at the national level, with women modestly more likely than men to report using social media in many survey waves, and the gap varying by platform.
  • Platform-typical differences: Women tend to index higher on Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest; men tend to index higher on Reddit and some “news/tech” social spaces. Pew’s fact sheets summarize these patterns: Pew Research Center social media demographics.

Most-used platforms (percentages from reputable U.S. surveys)

Covington-specific platform shares are not published in standard public datasets; the most defensible approach is to cite U.S. adult usage rates as benchmarks:

Behavioral trends (engagement patterns and preferences)

  • Community-information use skews toward Facebook in smaller localities: Local news, civic updates, school/sports announcements, and buy/sell activity commonly concentrate in Facebook Pages and Groups, consistent with Facebook’s older and broad-base penetration in the U.S. (Pew benchmark above).
  • Video is a primary cross-age behavior: YouTube’s very high reach supports routine use for how-to content, entertainment, local-interest clips, and news explainers across age brackets (Pew platform reach estimates).
  • Younger adults demonstrate higher posting frequency and multi-platform switching: National research shows younger users maintain accounts on more platforms and shift attention among short-form video and messaging-centric apps; older users concentrate activity on fewer platforms (summarized in Pew’s demographic tables: Pew social media use by age).
  • Local engagement patterns often favor “utility” interactions: Event coordination, marketplace listings, school/city notices, and peer recommendations typically generate higher engagement than national political content in small-city community feeds; this aligns with observed use of Facebook Groups/Pages for geographically bounded networks (supported indirectly by Pew’s documentation of Facebook’s broad reach and older skew: Pew platform demographics).

Family & Associates Records

Covington is an independent city in Virginia; most vital “family” records are maintained at the state level rather than by a county office. Virginia records commonly maintained include birth and death certificates, marriage and divorce records, and related amendments. Adoption records are generally sealed and handled through courts and the Virginia Office of Vital Records.

Virginia maintains statewide systems for requesting vital records through the Virginia Department of Health, Office of Vital Records, including eligibility-based ordering and identity verification for restricted records. See Virginia Department of Health – Vital Records. Older records become public over time (commonly: births after 100 years; deaths, marriages, and divorces after 25 years) via the Library of Virginia and its partners; see Library of Virginia – Virginia Vital Records.

In-person access is available through local courthouses for court-maintained family-related filings (such as marriage licenses and divorce case files) and through the Covington Circuit Court Clerk’s Office; see Covington Circuit Court. Online access to some court records is provided through the Virginia Judiciary’s systems; see Virginia Courts – Case Information.

Privacy restrictions commonly limit access to recent vital records to the registrant and specific eligible parties; sealed adoption records typically require court authorization for access.

Marriage & Divorce Records

Record types maintained

Marriage records

  • Marriage licenses: Issued by the Clerk of the Circuit Court serving the locality; the license is the legal authorization to marry in Virginia.
  • Marriage registers/returns: After the ceremony, the officiant completes and returns the license; the court maintains the executed record as proof the marriage occurred.
  • Certified marriage certificates: Certified copies are issued from the court record (local level) and from the state vital records repository (state level).

Divorce records

  • Divorce case files: Court case records maintained by the Circuit Court where the divorce was filed. Files commonly include pleadings, orders, and associated case documents.
  • Final divorce decrees: The final order dissolving the marriage; maintained in the Circuit Court record.
  • Divorce verification letters/certifications (state-level vital record product): Vital records offices commonly provide proof of divorce based on the state record index.

Annulment records

  • Annulment case files and decrees: Annulments are handled as civil matters in Circuit Court and maintained in the same manner as divorce case records, including a final order (decree) when granted.

Where records are filed and how access typically works in Covington (independent city), Virginia

Local filing office (primary court record)

  • Covington is an independent city and maintains its own court records separate from surrounding counties.
  • Marriage licenses and executed marriage records are filed with the Clerk of the Circuit Court for the City of Covington.
  • Divorce and annulment actions are filed and maintained in the Circuit Court for the City of Covington, with records held by the Circuit Court Clerk’s Office.

State-level vital records

  • The Virginia Department of Health, Division of Vital Records maintains statewide vital records (including marriage and divorce). State-issued certified copies or verifications are commonly obtained through that system.

Access methods (general)

  • In-person access: Requests for certified copies of marriage records and copies of divorce/annulment orders are commonly handled by the Circuit Court Clerk’s Office where the record was created.
  • Mail requests: Many Virginia clerks and the state vital records office accept written requests for certified copies.
  • Online access: Public access to indexes and images varies by locality and record type. Virginia’s statewide court case-information tools may provide limited docket-level information for some cases, while certified copies are issued by the record custodian.

Typical information contained in the records

Marriage licenses / executed marriage records

Common data elements include:

  • Full names of both parties (including prior names in some cases)
  • Date and place of marriage
  • Ages or dates of birth
  • Current residences and/or birthplaces
  • Marital status (single/divorced/widowed) and number of prior marriages in some eras/forms
  • Names of parents (varies by form/era)
  • Officiant name/title and certification
  • License issuance date and court/city identification
  • Signatures (parties, officiant, clerk)

Divorce decrees / divorce case files

Common data elements include:

  • Names of parties and case number
  • Filing date and court jurisdiction
  • Date of final decree and judge’s signature
  • Findings and orders regarding:
    • Dissolution of marriage
    • Child custody/visitation and support (when applicable)
    • Spousal support (when applicable)
    • Division of property and debts (when applicable)
    • Restoration of a former name (when requested/granted)
  • Attached agreements and financial disclosures may appear in the case file (availability may be restricted by law or court order).

Annulment decrees / case files

Common data elements include:

  • Names of parties and case number
  • Legal basis for annulment (as pleaded and found by the court)
  • Date of order and judge’s signature
  • Orders addressing related issues (property, support, children) where applicable

Privacy, confidentiality, and legal restrictions (Virginia)

  • Certified copies and identity controls: Virginia vital records are subject to statutory access restrictions. State-issued certified copies are typically limited to eligible requesters (for example, the persons named on the record and certain immediate family members or legal representatives), subject to identification and fee requirements.
  • Court records vs. vital records:
    • Marriage licenses/executed marriage records held by the Circuit Court are generally treated as public records, though access may be limited for specific categories (such as sealed records or protected information).
    • Divorce and annulment case files are generally public court records, but courts may seal all or part of a file by order. Certain sensitive attachments (for example, records involving minors, protected addresses, or specific confidential filings) may be restricted.
  • Redaction requirements: Virginia court filings are subject to rules limiting disclosure of personal identifiers (for example, Social Security numbers). Public copies may be redacted consistent with court policy and statewide rules.
  • Fees and certification: Access commonly involves statutory copy and certification fees. Only the custodian office (local Circuit Court Clerk or the state vital records office) issues certified copies suitable for legal purposes.

Notes on terminology and jurisdiction for Covington

  • “Covington City” records are maintained under the City of Covington court system rather than a “Covington County,” because Covington is an independent city in Virginia. Records for surrounding localities are maintained by the courts and clerks of those separate jurisdictions.

Education, Employment and Housing

Covington is an independent city in the Alleghany Highlands of western Virginia, adjacent to Alleghany County and near the West Virginia border. It is a small, older industrial community with a comparatively high share of older housing stock and a workforce that commonly commutes within the Covington–Alleghany local labor market. (In Virginia, independent cities are not part of any county; “Covington City County” is commonly used informally but is not an official jurisdiction.)

Education Indicators

Public schools (counts and names)

Covington’s public schools are operated by Covington City Public Schools. The division’s core schools generally include:

  • Edgmont Primary School
  • Jeter-Watson Intermediate School
  • Covington Middle School
  • Alleghany High School (serving the broader area through regional arrangements; high school service patterns can involve coordination with neighboring Alleghany County)

School listings and official details are maintained by Covington City Public Schools (Covington City Public Schools) and the Virginia Department of Education school directory (Virginia Department of Education).
Note: Because Covington is small and the region uses shared services in some areas, school counts and grade configurations can change; official division rosters are the definitive source.

Student–teacher ratios and graduation rates

  • Student–teacher ratios and on-time graduation rates are reported annually by the Virginia Department of Education School Quality Profiles (division- and school-level). The most current verified values are available through the state profile system rather than a single static table in public summaries: Virginia School Quality Profiles.
    Proxy note: In small divisions, ratios and cohort graduation rates can fluctuate year-to-year due to cohort size; the state profiles are the appropriate “most recent year available” reference point.

Adult educational attainment

Adult attainment for the city is tracked through the U.S. Census Bureau’s American Community Survey (ACS) (typically 5-year estimates for smaller geographies). Covington generally shows:

  • A majority of adults with at least a high school diploma or equivalent
  • A smaller share with a bachelor’s degree or higher than Virginia statewide (a typical pattern for small industrial Appalachian localities)

The authoritative, most recent ACS percentages for “Educational Attainment (Population 25 years and over)” for Covington city are available via data.census.gov.

Notable programs (STEM, CTE, AP)

Program offerings are documented in local course catalogs and state school profiles. In Virginia public secondary schools, commonly reported advanced and career pathways include:

  • Career and Technical Education (CTE) pathways aligned to Virginia’s CTE clusters (often including trades, health sciences, IT, and business)
  • Advanced Placement (AP) participation where course offerings and staffing allow
  • Dual enrollment and regional career center participation are common models in small localities (availability varies by year and agreements)

The most defensible public reference points for current offerings are:

School safety measures and counseling resources

Virginia school divisions typically implement layered safety and student-support approaches, which for Covington are best confirmed in division policy and school handbooks:

  • Visitor management and controlled entry procedures
  • School Resource Officer (SRO) or law-enforcement coordination (common across Virginia divisions)
  • Emergency response planning and required drills
  • Student counseling services (school counselors; referrals to community mental health partners as needed)

The most reliable public documentation is posted through the division and reflected in school profile reporting and policy postings: Covington City Public Schools and Virginia Department of Education.
Data limitation note: Publicly comparable “counselor-to-student” metrics and detailed safety staffing are not consistently published in a single standardized table for every small division; division policy documents are the primary source.

Employment and Economic Conditions

Unemployment rate (most recent year available)

Covington’s unemployment rate is reported by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (LAUS) and the Virginia Employment Commission through time-series local area statistics. The most recent monthly and annual averages for Covington city are available here:

Major industries and employment sectors

Covington’s economy reflects an Alleghany Highlands mix of:

  • Manufacturing (historically important in the area)
  • Health care and social assistance
  • Retail trade and accommodation/food services
  • Educational services and public administration
  • Construction and transportation/warehousing in smaller shares

The most recent sector breakdowns for “Industry by occupation/Industry of employment” for Covington city residents are available in the ACS on data.census.gov (often using 5-year estimates).

Common occupations and workforce breakdown

The resident workforce commonly includes:

  • Production, transportation, and material moving
  • Office and administrative support
  • Sales and related
  • Healthcare support and practitioner roles
  • Education and service occupations

The definitive “Occupation” tables (by percentage) for Covington city residents are in ACS profiles and detailed tables on data.census.gov.
Proxy note: In small cities, employer-location data and resident-occupation data can diverge due to commuting; ACS describes resident workers, not necessarily jobs located inside the city.

Commuting patterns and mean commute time

Covington-area commuting commonly involves travel within the Covington–Alleghany local area, with some longer-distance commuting to larger employment centers in the surrounding region. The most recent values for:

  • Mean travel time to work
  • Mode share (drive alone/carpool/work from home)
  • Place-of-work flows (in-city vs outside)

are provided by ACS commuting tables (e.g., “Travel Time to Work,” “Means of Transportation to Work,” “Place of Work”) on data.census.gov.

Local employment versus out-of-city work

For small independent cities, a significant portion of residents often work outside the city boundary (including adjacent Alleghany County), while some jobs in the city are filled by in-commuters. The most current quantified share of residents working inside Covington versus outside is reported in ACS “Place of Work” tables on data.census.gov.
Data limitation note: Public, up-to-date employer-based counts at the city boundary level are less standardized than ACS resident worker flows; ACS remains the most consistent cross-community comparator.

Housing and Real Estate

Homeownership rate and rental share

Covington’s housing tenure split (owner-occupied vs renter-occupied) is tracked in the ACS “Tenure” tables. Covington typically has:

  • A substantial owner-occupied share, alongside
  • A notable renter share, common in small cities with older multifamily stock and lower-cost rentals relative to statewide urban markets

The most recent owner/renter percentages are available on data.census.gov.

Median property values and recent trends

  • Median value of owner-occupied housing units (ACS) is the standard public benchmark for Covington city and provides a comparable median across geographies.
  • Recent trends in small Appalachian localities commonly reflect modest appreciation relative to large metro areas, with variability driven by housing condition, renovation activity, and limited inventory.

The most recent ACS median value for Covington city is available on data.census.gov.
Proxy note: Realtor/transaction-based medians can differ from ACS medians; ACS is a consistent official series for small-area comparisons.

Typical rent prices

Typical rent levels are reported as:

  • Median gross rent (ACS), representing contract rent plus estimated utilities

Covington’s most recent median gross rent is available through ACS tables on data.census.gov.
Proxy note: Small-sample ACS rent estimates can carry wider margins of error; year-over-year movement should be interpreted with that limitation.

Types of housing

Covington’s housing stock generally includes:

  • Older single-family detached homes in established neighborhoods
  • Small multifamily buildings and apartments closer to the city core
  • Mixed-use/older structures in traditional town patterns
  • Limited “rural lot” development within city limits compared with surrounding Alleghany County, due to the city’s smaller land area

Housing structure type shares (single-family, 2–4 unit, 5+ unit, mobile home) are available in ACS “Units in Structure” tables on data.census.gov.

Neighborhood characteristics (proximity to schools or amenities)

Covington’s neighborhood form is characterized by:

  • A compact city layout where many residential areas are within short driving distance of schools, parks, and civic services
  • Older neighborhood blocks near the historic core and commercial corridors, with more dispersed residential pockets toward the outskirts

Specific proximity metrics are not published as a single standardized statistic for the city; the most objective public references are municipal maps and school addresses from Covington City Public Schools and city government resources.

Property tax overview (rate and typical homeowner cost)

Property tax in Covington is levied primarily on:

  • Real estate (land and improvements) based on assessed value
  • Often supplemented by personal property tax (vehicles), as is common in Virginia localities

The current real estate tax rate and billing rules are set by the city and published in official tax documents. The definitive source is Covington city government’s finance/tax pages and budget documents (official city site): City of Covington.
Data limitation note: “Typical homeowner cost” varies widely by assessment and exemptions; the city tax rate multiplied by median assessed values can be used as an approximate benchmark, but the median assessed value series must be taken from official assessment records rather than ACS market-value estimates for tax-bill precision.

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